1.2.1 The Scientific Revolution
The Scientific Revolution (109-121)
Overview
Historical Context
This section provides an overview of Western history, categorizing it into three phases: Classical, Medieval, and Modern. The Classical era ended in 476 CE, giving way to the Medieval era which concluded in 1453, leading into the Modern period, often referred to as the Early Modern period in historical discourse.
The Reformation
The Reformation is highlighted, noting its significant impact on the Church and European society. This period was characterized by religious warfare, with conflicts between Catholics and Protestants, and among Protestants themselves. These conflicts have echoes in contemporary times, though less overtly violent.
Emergence of Philosophes
In the seventeenth century, the futility of religious wars led to the emergence of intellectuals known as "philosophes." They rejected organized religion, specifically Christianity, favoring an understanding of the world beyond divine revelation. This marked the beginning of the Enlightenment, focusing on science as a means of discovering truth.
Scientific Thought and Advancements
Science and the Enlightenment
Science is defined as the systematic observation and recording of nature, signifying a shift from seeking truth in religious texts to deriving it directly from nature. The Enlightenment, or the 'Age of Reason', focused on human intellect and reason.
Advances in Cosmology
The section discusses advances in cosmology, from the geocentric model, where the Earth was considered immovable with celestial bodies revolving around it, to the challenges posed by observable phenomena like the retrograde motion of planets.
Ptolemy's Geocentric Model
Around 150 CE, the Greek philosopher Ptolemy sought to mathematically validate the geocentric view but faced challenges in explaining the retrograde motion of planets. He proposed epicycles to account for this.
Copernicus' Heliocentric Model
Nicolas Copernicus proposed the heliocentric model, placing the Sun at the center of the universe, which rectified calendar discrepancies and explained retrograde motion without complex epicycles.
Galileo Galilei's Impact
Galileo Galilei's contributions are discussed, including his use of a telescope to provide empirical evidence supporting the heliocentric model and his experiments leading to Galileo's laws. He laid the basis for the scientific method.
Conflict with the Church
- Galileo's Letter and Trial
Galileo's letter to the Grand Duchess Christina of Tuscany, defending the Copernican heliocentric model and attempting to reconcile science and Scripture, led to a significant conflict with the Catholic Church. His trial by the Roman Inquisition in 1633 and subsequent house arrest are detailed.
- The Church's Stance
The Church's support of the geocentric model and its conflict with the heliocentric model are discussed, alongside Galileo's advocacy for a non-literal interpretation of the Bible.
Legacy and Reconciliation
- Continuation of the Scientific Revolution
Despite resistance from the Church, the Scientific Revolution continued, particularly in Protestant Northern Europe, culminating in Isaac Newton's 'Principia Mathematica'.
- Church's Acknowledgment of Errors
In 1992, Pope John Paul II acknowledged the errors committed by the Church tribunal in Galileo's trial, differentiating between the spiritual teachings of the Bible and scientific statements.
Contemporary Challenges of Scientific Inquiry
The reliability of scientific evidence and the need for rigorous scientific inquiry are discussed, with references to historical and contemporary issues like the tobacco industry's response to health risks and debates on climate change.
Reflection Questions
- How can contemporary societies balance religious beliefs with scientific evidence in contentious issues?
- How does the history of the Scientific Revolution inform our understanding of skepticism and questioning in scientific inquiry?