1.2.2 Philosophes

The Enlightenment and Its Influence on the Formation of Modern Society

Introduction

The Enlightenment period marked a shift in the evolution of Western thought, particularly in the realms of science, religion, and politics. This era, characterized by a transformation in the way individuals and societies understood and interacted with the world, laid the foundations for the society we recognize today.

Religious Wars and the Ancien Régime

During the Enlightenment, Europe was embroiled in numerous religious conflicts. A key factor identified by intellectuals of the time, known as philosophes, was the "ancien régime" or "old order." This medieval social structure, comprising the Three Estates (clergy, nobility, and commoners), was seen as a primary source of societal discord. The monarchy and the clergy, in particular, were criticized for perpetuating problems within society. These criticisms stemmed from a growing belief that the teachings of religious and political leaders were often flawed and inconsistent with truth.

The Shift to Reason and Scientific Principles

This disillusionment with traditional authority figures led to an increased reliance on reason as the foundation of truth. Enlightenment thinkers emphasized reason and the empirical study of nature as the primary sources of knowledge and truth. This marked a shift from the medieval and Renaissance focus on divine revelation and religious authority as the primary means of understanding the world.

Key Figures in the Enlightenment Movement

• John Locke: Advocated for popular sovereignty over divine right.
• Isaac Newton: Emphasized scientific authority over religious doctrine.
• Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson: American founding fathers who were proponents of Deism. They believed in a divine creator who set the universe in motion but did not intervene in its operations.

Influence of Deism

Enlightenment thinkers did not necessarily deny God but rather changed how God was perceived. The focus was on understanding God through His creation—nature—rather than through revealed texts or religious institutions. This approach sees God’s laws as discoverable through reason and science. Many Enlightenment philosophers, including Locke, leaned towards Deism—a belief in a God who created the universe but does not intervene in its laws or in human affairs. This God was understood more as a divine watchmaker who set the universe in motion and could be understood through the study of His creation, i.e., nature. Deism suggested that God's concern for human conduct would manifest only in the afterlife, with rewards or punishments based on earthly actions. This influenced Thomas Jefferson's views on slavery, as he expressed concern about divine justice. "I tremble for my country when I consider that God is just."

John Locke's Contributions

"A Letter Concerning Toleration"

Locke's ideas about toleration can be seen as a bridge between traditional religious beliefs and the Enlightenment's critical stance towards organized religion. He advocated for religious freedom and the separation of church and state, recognizing the importance of individual conscience and reason in matters of faith. However, unlike some of his Enlightenment contemporaries, Locke did not outright dismiss religion as mere superstition. Instead, he sought a rational foundation for religious belief and practice, one that could coexist with the emerging values of reason, science, and progress.

Locke's nuanced approach reflects the broader Enlightenment effort to reconcile faith with reason, tradition with progress, and religious diversity with social harmony. His advocacy for toleration was a significant step in the development of modern liberal democratic thought, laying the groundwork for a society where diverse beliefs could coexist without the need for religious conformity enforced by the state.

"An Essay Concerning Human Understanding" (1698)

Presented the idea of the mind as a "tabula rasa" (blank slate), emphasizing that knowledge comes from experience. This concept opposed the Christian doctrine of original sin and supported a scientific approach to understanding the world. Locke's "tabula rasa" emphasizes the potential for human reason and experience to shape knowledge and character, while the Christian doctrine of original sin highlights the inherent moral frailty of humans and the need for divine grace. This contrast is representative of the shift in Western thought away from religious ideas and explanations and toward science and reason. Essentially, following Locke's proposal of controlling what is written on the slate makes possible a man-made paradise without intervention by God. The Enlightenment represented a move towards secularization in intellectual life. Philosophers and scientists began to explain natural and social phenomena without recourse to religious explanations, focusing instead on rational and empirical methods.

The Role of Education in Enlightenment Thought

Education was central to the Enlightenment. The idea that humans, as blank slates, could be shaped by their experiences underscored the importance of education in fostering enlightenment. This led to the establishment of schools and universities, increased literacy, and the dissemination of knowledge through various mediums.

The Enlightenment as an Anti-Clerical Movement

The Enlightenment represented a departure from religious explanations of the world. It marked a transition where the foundation of truth shifted from religion to science, the basis of truth from faith to reason, and the language of truth from the Bible to mathematics. This change was gradual, as seen in societies like America, which moved from deep religiosity to a more secular orientation.

Religious Freedom and Tolerance in Early America

Contrary to popular belief, the Pilgrims who came to America were not influenced by Enlightenment thinking and did not advocate for broad religious tolerance. Their quest for religious freedom was primarily for their own beliefs, often excluding others. The religious tolerance that emerged in the American colonies was more due to parliamentary decrees than a genuine acceptance of religious diversity.

The Enlightenment Metanarrative and Postmodernism

The Enlightenment framework became the foundation of modern society, particularly in the United States. This "modern" or "enlightenment metanarrative" refers to an overarching story or narrative framework through which our Western culture understands and interprets its history, values, and goals. In this specific context, the Enlightenment metanarrative is the story that Western societies, particularly those influenced by Enlightenment thinking, tell about their own progress and identity.

This metanarrative centers around the idea that through the application of science, technology, and reason, humanity can achieve progress, liberation, and enlightenment. It is a narrative of human empowerment, where the ability to understand and manipulate the world is seen as the key to improving human condition. Unlike earlier narratives that emphasized divine providence or destiny, the Enlightenment metanarrative places humans at the center of the story, as the architects of their own fate.

The Enlightenment metanarrative suggests that human history is a linear progression towards greater knowledge, freedom, and well-being, driven by human reason and scientific inquiry. This view posits that as we gain more knowledge and technological prowess, we move closer to an ideal society. It inherently values scientific knowledge and rational thought over tradition, superstition, or religious dogma.

This narrative has profoundly influenced Western thought and has been instrumental in shaping modern institutions, including democratic governance, secularism, and the education system. It underpins many of the principles and aspirations of modern societies, such as the belief in universal human rights, the pursuit of scientific and technological advancement, and the promotion of individual freedom and autonomy.

The 20th century witnessed a series of tragic events that fundamentally challenged the Enlightenment metanarrative and its optimistic view of continuous progress through reason and science. These events, which included two World Wars, the Holocaust, the rise and fall of totalitarian regimes, and the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, revealed the darker aspects of industrial and scientific advancement, shaking the faith in the inherent goodness of human progress and rationality.

This disillusionment with the Enlightenment ideals paved the way for the emergence of postmodernism. Postmodernism, in stark contrast to the grand, unifying theories of the Enlightenment, is characterized by skepticism towards grand narratives or metanarratives, like the Enlightenment story of progress.

Postmodernism rejects the idea of objective truth, instead viewing truth as relative and subjective. This perspective leads to a focus on the diversity of human experience and the importance of personal and cultural narratives. In postmodern thought, there is no single, overarching "story" that can adequately describe the human experience; instead, there are many individual stories, none of which can claim absolute authority or universality.

Reflection Questions

1. How did the Enlightenment's emphasis on reason and scientific principles challenge the traditional religious and political authorities of the time?
2. In what ways do you think the Enlightenment ideals of religious tolerance and the pursuit of knowledge through education are reflected in contemporary society?