1.3 Historical Reporting of "The West"
1.3.1 The Cowboy
Introduction
The American expansion into the Transmississippi West, spanning from approximately 1850 to 1900, represents a pivotal era in United States history characterized by the settlement and romanticization of the West. This Wikipedia entry delves into the era's historiography, examining the evolution of historical narratives surrounding this period and how 19th-century Americans' perceptions have transformed in the 20th century.
Definition of Historiography
Historiography, at its core, is the study of how history is written and how historical interpretations change over time. It involves analyzing the methodologies, approaches, and biases of historians to understand how historical narratives evolve. This entry focuses on the historiography of the American West, exploring how events were recorded, interpreted, and mythologized by different generations.
The Myth of the American West
The late 19th century's westward expansion is often romanticized as an extension of the American mission to spread democracy, ideology, and civilization across the continent. This notion is closely tied to the concept of Manifest Destiny, the belief that the United States was destined to expand across North America. The American West has been immortalized in literature, Buffalo Bill's Wild West show, and cinema, contributing to a mythologized version of the West that often obscures the reality of historical events.
The Cowboy
One of the most enduring symbols of the American West is the cowboy, an image that represents the United States both domestically and internationally. Contrary to the heroic, freedom-loving figure portrayed in popular culture, cowboys were primarily young men engaged in the difficult and essential task of herding cattle. Their work, while crucial, was grueling and comparable to the manual labor of today's construction workers or truck drivers.
The Dichotomy of the Cowboy Image
A portrayal from the LA Times in 2003 highlights the contrasting images of the cowboy in American and European perspectives. Amid debates over the United States' proposed invasion of Iraq, the cowboy was depicted as either a clean-cut hero in a white hat or a disheveled, gun-toting bandit, reflecting varying perceptions of American identity. This dichotomy underscores the complexity of the cowboy as a symbol, influenced by contemporary political contexts and international viewpoints.
President George W. Bush: A Modern Cowboy
The imagery of President George W. Bush advocating for the invasion of Iraq at the time further illustrates the cowboy symbol's potency in American identity. The representation of Bush as a cowboy emphasized the diverse interpretations of American actions and values, both domestically and internationally.
The Historian's Task
Reporting on the West, like any historical inquiry, involves more than recounting facts. It requires analyzing perceptions and interpretations to derive conclusions relevant to contemporary society. The historian's task is to navigate the complexities of facts and perceptions, offering insights into how past events are understood and remembered.
Conclusion
The historiography of American expansion into the Transmississippi West reveals the intricate interplay between historical facts and the perceptions that shape our understanding of the past. By examining how the narrative of the West has evolved, we gain insight into the broader dynamics of historiography and the ongoing process of constructing and reconstructing history.
1.3.2 The Turner Thesis
Introduction
Frederick Jackson Turner, an American historian and professor at the University of Wisconsin, introduced the Frontier Thesis, a concept that has profoundly influenced the understanding of American expansion and character. His seminal work, "The Significance of the Frontier in American History," presented in 1893, argues that the American frontier played an essential role in shaping the nation's democracy, values, and identity. This Wikipedia entry explores Turner's thesis, its historical context, criticisms, and its lasting impact on American historiography.
Historical Context
The Closing of the American Frontier
In 1890, the United States Census Bureau declared that a discernible frontier line no longer existed, marking the end of the frontier era. This conclusion came from census data collected every ten years, as mandated by the U.S. Constitution, to count every resident for legislative representation purposes. Maps from the nineteenth century illustrate the gradual settlement of the American West, showing a transition from vast, unsettled regions to densely populated areas.
Turner's Interpretation
Turner interpreted the settlement of the American West as a rejection of European decadence and a quest for a new beginning. He posited that the challenges and opportunities of the frontier life fostered a spirit of individualism and self-reliance, traits that became synonymous with the American character. According to Turner, the frontier was not merely a geographical boundary but a process of civilization and renewal that defined American progress.
Influence on American Democracy and Values
Turner argued that the frontier had a democratizing effect, breaking down class distinctions and promoting a more egalitarian society. He believed that the frontier was central to developing American democracy and shaping national values, such as liberty, perseverance, and an unwavering belief in progress and individualism.
The End of the Frontier
With the official closing of the frontier, Turner speculated that America would need to find new outlets for its expansionist energy. He suggested that the absence of a frontier could lead to a loss of the pioneering spirit that had driven American growth. However, he also noted that America's expansionist impulse would continue through other means, such as overseas territories and advancements in science and technology.
Criticism and Legacy
While Turner's thesis has been foundational in American historiography, it has not been without its critics. Some historians argue that it oversimplifies the complexities of frontier life, neglects the experiences of indigenous peoples and other marginalized groups, and glorifies conquest and expansion at the expense of recognizing its negative impacts.
Despite these criticisms, the Frontier Thesis remains a cornerstone of American historical narrative, offering insights into the nation's unique identity and evolution.
Artistic Representations and Cultural Beliefs
The frontier thesis is exemplified in the artwork "American Progress," which depicts the movement of civilization westward, bringing light to the darkness of the untamed West. This imagery reflects the era's belief in American exceptionalism and the moral imperative to spread democracy and enlightenment.
Ontology and American Expansion
Turner's thesis is underpinned by an ontological belief in the inherent righteousness of American expansion. This belief, deeply ingrained in the American psyche, viewed westward expansion as a manifest destiny to extend liberty and civilization. Such convictions shaped American policies and national identity, reinforcing the notion of the United States as a beacon of progress and freedom.
Conclusion
In sum, Frederick Jackson Turner's Frontier Thesis offers a compelling analysis of the role of the frontier in American history. It encapsulates the optimism, challenges, and contradictions of the American expansionist spirit. While it celebrates the nation's growth and the traits it fostered, it also invites reflection on the costs of such progress. Turner's work continues to provoke debate and reflection on the nature of American identity and the historical forces that have shaped it.
1.3.3 The "New West"
Introduction
This entry explores the narrative of American expansion into the West, emphasizing a significant ontological shift in historical perception post-1960s. While the events of the nineteenth century remain unchanged, the way Americans view and understand these events has undergone a profound transformation, influenced by cultural and historical developments in the latter half of the twentieth century.
American Mission and World War II
The United States, emerging from World War II as the first global superpower, saw itself as the defender of democratic values, a perception that continued until after the war. This era underscored America's commitment to spreading democracy and liberty, ideals that were tested and highlighted during the conflict and its aftermath.
Civil Rights and the Cold War
The post-war period also marked a reevaluation of domestic policies and attitudes, particularly regarding civil rights. The United States' involvement in the Cold War, taking on the role of a global defender of freedom, highlighted internal inconsistencies, especially as the country grappled with its civil rights challenges.
Korea and Southeast Asia Conflicts
American military engagements in Korea and Southeast Asia were initially framed as efforts to protect democracy from communist aggression. However, the escalation in Vietnam revealed that American involvement was also driven by colonial interests, which increasingly conflicted with the aspirations of local populations.
Vietnam War and Public Perception
The Vietnam War, particularly with the passage of the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, initially enjoyed widespread support. As the conflict continued, the American public began to question the alignment of their government's actions with the ideals of democracy, exacerbated by the draft and the growth of the anti-war movement.
Shift in American Confidence
By the mid-1970s, events such as the Vietnam War loss and the Watergate scandal eroded the post-World War II American confidence. These developments led to a reevaluation of the United States' role in the world and its commitment to spreading liberty.
Historical Reinterpretation
- The Legacy of Conquest
Patricia Limerick's "The Legacy of Conquest" challenges the previously dominant Turner Thesis by portraying westward expansion not as a democratic endeavor but as an act driven by greed, resulting in environmental destruction, violence, and resource usurpation.
- The Turner Thesis
Frederick Jackson Turner's thesis celebrated American westward expansion as progress and democracy. Contrasting with Limerick's perspective, Turner's view is now seen through the lens of contemporary values and knowledge, highlighting the need for a multifaceted understanding of historical narratives.
Conclusion
The reconsideration of American expansionism reflects a broader ontological shift in historical understanding. By comparing the perspectives of historians like Turner and Limerick, it becomes evident that the truth of American expansion lies in a complex understanding of contrasting viewpoints, each valid within its own context.
1.3.4 Some Definitions
Introduction
Historiography, ontology, historicity, and the distinction between primary and secondary sources are foundational concepts in the study of history. This entry aims to elucidate these terms for freshman students and general readers, providing a comprehensive understanding of their significance in historical studies.
Historiography
Historiography refers to the study of the methods and principles through which history is written and the evolution of historical narratives over time. This concept highlights how interpretations of historical events have changed, reflecting broader societal shifts and the changing contexts in which historians work. A classic illustration of differing historiographical approaches can be seen in the analysis of the American frontier through Frederick Jackson Turner's frontier thesis and Patricia Limerick's counter-argument. Turner posited that the American character was distinctly shaped by the frontier experience, suggesting a progressive view of American expansion. In contrast, Limerick critiqued this perspective, arguing for a more nuanced understanding that includes the experiences of Native Americans and other marginalized groups, thereby showcasing the evolving nature of historical narratives.
Ontology
Ontology in history refers to the underlying organization of knowledge about the world and its inhabitants, shaping how societies understand their structures and norms. This concept is key in understanding the perspectives from which individuals and historians interpret events, as it encompasses both societal and personal viewpoints shaped by unique backgrounds and experiences. By analyzing the ontological frameworks of historical actors, scholars can gain insights into their motivations and the societal norms of their times, enriching the analysis of historical events.
Historicity
The concept of historicity is essential in distinguishing between the factual sequence of events (historicity 1) and the narrative constructed around those events (historicity 2). This distinction was notably discussed in Michel-Rolph Trouillot's work, "Silencing the Past: Power and the Production of History," emphasizing the difference between what actually happened and how it is later narrated and interpreted. The comparison of differing perceptions of a football game outcome illustrates how the same event can be understood in multiple ways, highlighting the role of interpretation and bias in historical narratives.
Primary and Secondary Sources
Understanding the difference between primary and secondary sources is fundamental in historical research. Primary sources, such as the Declaration of Independence, are original documents that offer direct evidence about the past. In contrast, secondary sources interpret and analyze primary sources, providing context, commentary, and scholarly analysis. Over time, documents like Turner's thesis have evolved from contemporary analyses to being considered primary sources themselves, illustrating the fluid nature of historical materials.
Conclusion
The study of history is a complex and nuanced endeavor that extends beyond mere factual recounting. By engaging with concepts such as historiography, ontology, historicity, and the nature of sources, students can develop a deeper understanding of the forces that shape historical narratives and the diverse interpretations that emerge from them. In the following modules, this course will explore the narrative of U.S. history, beginning in the latter part of the nineteenth century, applying these concepts to concrete historical analyses.