1.4 The Spanish Century
1.4.1 The Economics of Colonization
Introduction
The 16th century marked a pivotal era in world history, often referred to as "The Spanish Century." This period was characterized by Spain's unprecedented exploration, conquest, and colonization of the Americas. A confluence of events in Europe, notably the Reformation's disruptive effects, enabled the Spanish to undertake these endeavors largely unchallenged by other European powers. This comprehensive exploration will delve into the socio-political landscape of the Americas prior to and following the European encounter, highlighting the significant shifts and consequences of such interactions.
Socio-Political Context in the Americas
Before the arrival of Europeans, the Americas were inhabited by diverse societies, ranging from nomadic hunter-gatherers to highly stratified civilizations. The economic systems of these societies played a crucial role in shaping the nature of European interaction.
- Surplus Economies: These were characterized by the production of goods beyond the basic needs for survival, leading to wealth accumulation among the elite. The Aztec society is a prime example, where a complex social hierarchy developed over time, from peasants and craftsmen to nobility and rulers, such as Montezuma II (Motecuhzoma Xocoyotzin).
- Subsistence Economies: These economies were typical of nomadic societies, where communal efforts were directed towards meeting the basic needs of the community, fostering a sense of equality. The transition from nomadism to settled agriculture led to the development of civilizations, defined by the establishment of cities without implying any qualitative judgment.
European Encounter and Consequences
The Spanish, driven by the pursuit of profit, encountered these diverse economic systems upon their arrival. Their approach to interaction varied significantly based on the type of economy:
In subsistence economies, the Spanish often viewed the land as the primary source of value, leading to the displacement or enslavement of indigenous populations. In contrast, in surplus economies like the Aztec, the Spanish sought to integrate into the existing social hierarchy, redirecting wealth flow towards themselves while maintaining the social structure to preserve wealth production. This included the imposition of Christianity and the cessation of practices such as human sacrifice. Misconceptions and Realities of Spanish Conquest The Spanish conquest is often simplistically critiqued as a deliberate genocide for land and wealth. However, the reality was more complex. The introduction of European diseases resulted in a devastating demographic collapse among the indigenous populations, hindering Spanish economic interests rather than benefiting them. The subsequent labor crisis and social structure collapse transformed the diverse native social strata into a singular group of "indios," contrary to the intention of preserving a productive workforce.
Terminology and The "Black Legend"
- The term 'Indians' has historically been used to describe the indigenous peoples of the Americas, though it is recognized as inaccurate. The more appropriate terms are "Native Americans" or "First Nations Peoples," reflecting the diverse origins of these populations.
- The "Black Legend" narrative accuses the Spanish of singularly devastating American societies. However, it is crucial to recognize that the economic motivations of European powers often led to similar outcomes in their interactions with indigenous peoples, underscoring the economic underpinnings of colonial encounters.
Conclusion
This exploration into the economics of colonization during the Spanish Century reveals the complex interplay between European economic interests and indigenous societies' diverse economic systems. The consequences of these encounters shaped the Americas' socio-political landscape in profound ways, highlighting the importance of understanding these dynamics in a broader historical context. As we delve further into the aspects of the New World encounter, it is essential to critically assess the narratives and recognize the similarities and differences in the approaches of various European powers towards colonization.
1.4.2 The Americas
Overview
The history of the Americas before European contact is rich and complex, characterized by diverse indigenous cultures with sophisticated societies, languages, and technologies. Among these, three predominant cultures stand out due to their significant impact and legacy: the Aztecs, the Mayans, and the Inca. This article aims to expand upon the introductory knowledge provided to freshman college students, offering a comprehensive overview of these cultures, their social structures, and their eventual encounters with Europeans.
The Aztecs
Mexica and the Concept of Aztec Empire
The term "Aztec Empire" is commonly used to describe the domain of a dominant group known as the Mexica, from whom the name 'Mexico' derives. Contrary to the typical understanding of an empire as a geographical territory, like the Roman Empire, the Aztec Empire was an empire of tribute. The Mexica were initially nomadic outsiders who settled in the highly civilized area of the Valley of Mexico, or Anahuac, now the location of modern Mexico City. This area was characterized by nearly 700 city-states, each with its own governance, culture, and pantheon of gods, yet united by the Nahuatl language, which persists in central Mexico today.
The Mexica established the magnificent city of Tenochtitlán on a man-made island in the middle of a lake in the Valley of Mexico. Their dominance was achieved not through conventional conquest but through a system of tribute extraction from other city-states. This method of control fostered resentment among their subjects, a sentiment that the Spanish would later exploit during their conquest.
Origin of the Term "Aztec"
The term "Aztec" originates from the 19th-century hypothesis by German scholar Alexander von Humboldt, suggesting that the Mexica came from a mythical place called "Aztlan." The name "Azteca," derived from "Aztlan," did not come into common usage until the 19th century.
The Mayans
The Mayan cultural area was home to 52 distinct groups, all speaking variations of the Mayan language. Unlike the centralized Mexica, Mayan society was fragmented, with city-states often at war with each other. By the time the Spanish arrived, many of these cities were deserted, leading to speculation about their purpose and the reasons for their abandonment. The Mayans' internal conflicts and their hostility towards outsiders, including the Spanish, persisted well into the 19th century, debunking the myth of a unified Mayan Empire.
The Inca
The Inca of Peru established a true empire through conquest and cultural integration, closely resembling the structure of empires like that of Rome. Central to the Inca Empire's cohesion was the authority of the great Inca ruler. The Spanish conquest strategically exploited this centralized authority by capturing the Inca ruler Atahualpa, using his influence to gain control over the empire, leading to its rapid subjugation.
Other Indigenous Groups
Beyond these three cultures, the Americas were home to numerous other indigenous groups, ranging from sophisticated urban societies to nomadic tribes. The interaction between these indigenous populations and Europeans often resulted in tragedy, especially as diseases and conflict decimated native populations.
Conclusion
The history of the Americas pre-European contact is a testament to the rich and diverse cultures that flourished across the continent. Understanding the complexity of these societies, their achievements, and their struggles provides a more nuanced perspective on the indigenous legacy of the Americas.
1.4.3 La Reconquista
La Reconquista
La Reconquista, translating to "The Reconquest," is a pivotal era in Spanish history, spanning approximately from 711 to 1492. This period was characterized by the Christian kingdoms in northern Spain fighting to reclaim territory from Muslim dynasties that dominated the Iberian Peninsula. La Reconquista is not just a story of warfare but also a foundational narrative for Spain's national identity, deeply intertwined with religious transformation and the emergence of Spain as a unified kingdom under a Catholic monarchy.
Early Muslim Invasion and the Moorish Rule
In 711, Muslim forces, often referred to as the Moors, launched an invasion of the Iberian Peninsula. This invasion began at a strategic point now known as Gibraltar, originally called "Jabal Ṭāriq" after the Umayyad general Tariq ibn-Ziyad. The Moors' conquest was rapid and extensive, pushing beyond the Iberian Peninsula into what is now southern France, an area then under the control of the Franks.
The initial success of the Moorish invasion faced a significant setback when Charles Martel, the Frankish leader and grandfather of Charlemagne, repelled the invaders at the Battle of Tours (732), preventing further Muslim advance into Europe and establishing a precedent for Christian resistance.
Asturias and the Beginnings of Reconquest
The northern region of Asturias notably resisted Moorish control from the onset of the invasion. It is here that the Christian Reconquest is considered to have begun, symbolized by the victory at the Battle of Covadonga (c. 722), led by the Visigothic nobleman Pelagius (Pelayo). This small territory of Asturias laid the groundwork for the Christian kingdoms' resistance and eventual reconquest of the peninsula.
The Process of Reconquest
La Reconquista was a protracted series of battles, sieges, and skirmishes that lasted for over seven centuries. It was not a continuous effort but a series of localized conflicts that gradually pushed the Moorish states southwards. The Christian territories expanded through military conquests and strategic marriages, consolidating power and forming the basis of modern Spain's territorial divisions.
Significant milestones in the Reconquista include the capture of Toledo in 1085, the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212, and the eventual fall of the Emirate of Granada in 1492. These events not only marked the territorial gains but also the growing power of Christian kingdoms such as Castile, Aragon, and Navarre.
The Fall of Granada and Aftermath
The culmination of La Reconquista occurred with the surrender of Granada in 1492, the last Muslim stronghold on the peninsula, to the Catholic Monarchs, King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Isabella I of Castile. This victory not only signified the end of Muslim rule in Spain but also the beginning of a unified Spanish kingdom under a fervent Catholic identity.
The same year marked the expulsion of Jews from Spain, reflecting the monarchy's pursuit of religious homogeneity. This policy of religious exclusivity extended into the Spanish Empire, profoundly impacting its colonial endeavors.
Legacy and Impact
La Reconquista profoundly influenced Spain's national identity, culture, and politics. The period was instrumental in forging a unified Spanish state, characterized by a strong military tradition and a zealous Catholic faith. Moreover, the Reconquest laid the foundation for Spain's Golden Age, a period of expansive exploration, cultural flourishing, and imperial dominance.
As Spain transitioned from a collection of warring kingdoms to a unified nation, its focus shifted outward, leading to the Age of Discovery. The completion of La Reconquista coincided with the beginning of this new era, symbolized by the voyage of Christopher Columbus (Cristóbal Colón) in 1492, which opened the door to the New World and Spain's future as a global empire.
1.4.4 The Expansion of European Trade
Expansion of European Trade
The period spanning the late Middle Ages into the early Modern Era marked a significant transformation in European trade and exploration, setting the stage for the Age of Exploration. This entry delves into the factors that spurred European nations to venture beyond their borders, examining the technological, social, and political changes that facilitated this monumental shift.
Context: Europe in the Middle Ages
During the Middle Ages, Europe was characterized by political fragmentation, social stratification, and economic underdevelopment. Compared to the advanced civilizations of Asia, Europe was relatively insular and underdeveloped, engaging in limited trade primarily due to the lack of desirable goods for the Asian markets. The continent was connected to the East through overland trade routes like the Silk Road, established by the Mongols, but these connections were minimal. Maritime trade, dominated by Muslim traders, linked East Asia with the east coast of Africa, leaving Europe largely on the periphery of this lucrative exchange.
Technological Innovations in Portugal
In the 1450s, Portugal emerged as a pioneer in overcoming the navigational challenges of the time. Under the sponsorship of its king, Portugal developed new technologies enabling sailors to venture beyond the sight of land. Previously, European sailors had been reluctant to lose sight of the coastline, fearing disorientation and loss. The introduction of navigational tools such as the astrolabe and the cross-staff allowed for open-sea voyaging, guided by the stars. This technological leap led to the discovery and conquest of the Azores and Canaries, where the populations were enslaved, highlighting that slavery at this point was not racially motivated but was an exploitation of available labor.
Portuguese Exploration and Trade Dominance
Portuguese explorers, driven by legends of a wealthy kingdom where the king was purportedly covered in gold—often associated with El Dorado—ventured around Africa and into the Indian Ocean. Here, they encountered the established trading routes operated by Muslim traders. Armed with advanced technology, including brass cannons, the Portuguese dominated these routes, establishing a carrying trade system. This system, akin to an early modern logistics operation, allowed the Portuguese to become a significant trading power by transporting goods across vast distances, trading them profitably, and channeling wealth back to Portugal.
The Rise of Spain and the Search for Expansion
By the time of the Reconquista in 1492, trade between Asia and Europe was primarily controlled by the Italians (Venetians and Genovese) overland, and by the Portuguese via maritime routes. The emergence of Spain as an aggressive nation seeking expansion marked a turning point. Faced with limited expansion options on the European continent, Spain looked outward, laying the groundwork for its future explorations and the eventual encounter with the Americas.
Conclusion
The expansion of European trade in the late Middle Ages and early Modern Era was a complex process influenced by technological innovation, the desire for wealth, and the strategic maneuvers of emerging European powers. The developments during this period laid the foundation for the Age of Exploration, significantly altering the course of world history by connecting distant parts of the globe through trade, conquest, and cultural exchange. This era not only reshaped the global economy but also set the stage for the modern world's interconnectedness.
1.4.5 The Age of Discovery
Introduction
The Age of Discovery, spanning the late 15th to the early 17th centuries, represents a pivotal era in world history. This period is marked by European explorations across the globe, leading to significant cultural exchanges, the establishment of trade routes, and the colonization of various regions. A central figure in this epoch is Cristóbal Colón, known in the English-speaking world as Christopher Columbus. Columbus, a Genovese sailor with experience sailing for Portugal, embarked on a voyage that would inadvertently bridge the continents of the Old World and the New World, reshaping global history.
Background and Early Life
Christopher Columbus was born in the Republic of Genoa (modern-day Italy) and later moved to Portugal, where he learned the art of navigation. During his time in Portugal, Columbus developed a keen interest in reaching the Indies (East Asia and China) by sailing westward. His idea was inspired by ancient writings and the prevailing knowledge of the Earth's spherical shape among educated Europeans.
The Spherical Earth
Contrary to popular belief, the notion that medieval Europeans universally thought the world was flat is incorrect. Educated individuals of the time were well aware of the Earth's curvature, a fact observable through phenomena such as the gradual disappearance of a ship's hull before its sails when it sails away from shore. These observations not only affirmed the Earth's roundness but also allowed for estimations of its size.
Columbus's Proposal
Despite the accurate understanding of Earth's shape, Columbus's calculations concerning the distance to Asia were significantly flawed. He underestimated the Earth's circumference, leading to the belief that Asia could be reached by sailing directly west from Europe. This theory was met with skepticism by the educated class, who understood that the actual distance to Asia was far greater than Columbus projected, and that such a voyage would exceed the carrying capacity of contemporary ships for provisions.
The Voyage of 1492
Undeterred by the skepticism, Columbus secured the patronage of Queen Isabella of Spain for his voyage. In 1492, Columbus set sail with three ships: the Niña, the Pinta, and the Santa María. This expedition would lead to the first European sighting of the Americas on October 12, 1492. While the exact location of Columbus's first landfall remains a subject of scholarly debate, it is widely believed to have been near modern-day Haiti on the island of Hispaniola.
Encounter with the New World
Upon landing, Columbus and his crew encountered the indigenous peoples of the Americas. Contrary to romanticized accounts, this meeting marked the onset of devastating impacts for the native populations, who would suffer from disease, enslavement, and violence brought by European colonizers. Columbus, believing he had reached the East Indies, misnamed the inhabitants as "Indians," a term that has persisted.
Legacy and Recognition
Despite Columbus's belief that he had found a new route to Asia, he had, in fact, stumbled upon an entirely new continent. This realization would only come later, as Europeans gradually understood that these lands were not the eastern outskirts of Asia but a separate landmass. Amerigo Vespucci, for whom the Americas are named, played a crucial role in this recognition by identifying the New World as a distinct geographical entity.
The voyages of Christopher Columbus are among the most consequential in human history, opening the gates to the European exploration and colonization of the Americas. The term "New World" (Novo Mundo) emerged to describe these previously unknown territories, rich in diverse cultures and landscapes.
Conclusion
As we delve further into the Spanish Century, the repercussions of Columbus's voyages and the ensuing interactions between Europeans and indigenous populations will be explored. The Age of Discovery set the stage for the global exchanges that would shape the world's economic, social, and cultural landscape for centuries to come.
1.4.6 Conquest and Exploitation
Conquest
The Conquest of Mexico is a seminal event in world history that unfolded in the early 16th century, featuring Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés and the Aztec Empire. This intricate and momentous chapter spanned several years, characterized by cunning diplomacy, alliances, conflicts, and cultural exchanges, which irrevocably changed the course of history. The following is a concise overview of the principal events and figures in the conquest:
Cortés Receives a Commission from the King
Hernán Cortés, a Spanish conquistador, was granted a commission by King Charles I of Spain (also Holy Roman Emperor Charles V) to lead an expedition to Mexico. This commission was entangled with Cortés' dispute with Diego Velázquez, the governor of Cuba, who originally authorized Cortés' expedition but later rescinded it due to distrust and competition. The military expedition Cortez organized did not consist of what we would think of a soldiers of an official Spanish army. The recruitment for conquistador expeditions was driven by a mix of personal ambition, economic necessity, and the promise of social mobility, framed within the broader context of Spanish exploration and colonization efforts in the New World. Men were expected to provide their own weapons and equipment for the expedition.
Conflict with Diego Velázquez
Initially, Diego Velázquez, the governor of Cuba, endorsed Cortés' venture but quickly sought to stop it, apprehensive about Cortés' increasing influence and ambition. Ignoring Velázquez's commands to disband his expedition, Cortés pushed forward, resulting in a rift between them.
The Burning of the Ships
To guarantee his men's dedication to the conquest, Cortés famously ordered the burning of his ships upon arriving on the Mexican coast. This act underscored their commitment, signifying there was no turning back and the only option was to succeed.
Malintzin (La Malinche)
Malintzin, also known as La Malinche, was an Indigenous woman who played a key role in the conquest. As a slave given to Cortés, she became his interpreter, advisor, and mediator with Indigenous peoples. Her linguistic talents and cultural insights were crucial for Cortés, aiding in negotiations and the formation of alliances with various Indigenous factions.
The March to Tenochtitlán
Cortés and his troops advanced towards Tenochtitlán, the Aztec capital, forging alliances with Indigenous groups oppressed by the Aztecs who viewed the Spaniards as potential liberators.
Encounter of Cortés and Montezuma
The encounter between Cortés and Aztec emperor Montezuma II in 1519 was a defining moment. Montezuma initially received Cortés with diplomacy, possibly influenced by Aztec prophecies, hoping to integrate the foreigners through traditional hospitality. However, the Spaniards' relationship with the Aztecs quickly soured.
Cortés' Strategic Hostage-taking
Upon entering Tenochtitlán, Cortés took Emperor Montezuma II as a hostage, leveraging him to indirectly control the Aztec Empire. This bold strategy allowed Cortés to exert significant influence but also fostered resentment among the Aztecs.
Cortés Leaves Tenochtitlán
Cortés had to leave Tenochtitlán to confront a rival Spanish force led by Pánfilo de Narváez, dispatched by Diego Velázquez to apprehend Cortés for defiance. Cortés left Pedro de Alvarado in command of the Spanish contingent in the city.
Massacre at the Templo Mayor
During Cortés' absence, tensions escalated when Pedro de Alvarado orchestrated a massacre of Aztec nobles and warriors at a religious festival in the Templo Mayor. Alvarado claimed it was to prevent an uprising, triggering widespread Aztec fury and a unified call to arms against the Spaniards.
Cortés Returns and Attempts to Quell the Uprising
After defeating Narváez and absorbing his forces, Cortés rushed back to Tenochtitlán, only to find it in rebellion. Attempts to use Montezuma to pacify the unrest failed, with the emperor either being ignored or, as some accounts suggest, injured by his people. Montezuma's waning authority and potential demise marked the collapse of any chance for a peaceful settlement.
Preparations for Retreat
Recognizing the dire situation, with hostility rampant and resources dwindling, Cortés planned a tactical retreat from Tenochtitlán. The Spaniards and their Indigenous allies aimed to exit the city stealthily to evade Aztec forces.
La Noche Triste
On the night of June 30, 1520, the Spaniards and their allies fled Tenochtitlán, choosing a route over one of the city's causeways. Discovered and attacked by Aztec warriors, the retreat became a slaughter, resulting in significant losses. The survivors took refuge in Tlaxcala, a rival city-state to the Aztecs, which had aligned with Cortés.
The Final Conquest of Tenochtitlán
After regrouping and securing reinforcements, Cortés besieged Tenochtitlán in 1521. The siege, along with the devastation of smallpox introduced by the Europeans, led to the city's downfall. The capture of Tenochtitlán signified the collapse of the Aztec Empire and the ascendancy of Spanish rule in Mexico.
The conquest profoundly impacted the region, leading to the creation of New Spain, the proliferation of Christianity, the catastrophic loss of Indigenous lives and cultures, and the fusion of Spanish and Indigenous peoples, forging the mestizo identity central to much of Latin America.
The era known as the Spanish Century marked a pivotal period in the history of the Americas, characterized by the establishment of the Spanish Empire's vast colonial territories. This segment aims first to give a narrative account of the conquest of Mexico and then to provide an in-depth exploration of the Spanish Empire in America, focusing on its nature, structure, and the mechanisms of colonization and exploitation, particularly through the encomienda system. This system illustrates the complex dynamics between the Spanish Crown, the conquistadors, and the indigenous populations.
Economic Motivations and the Quest for Wealth
The adventurers who embarked on voyages to the New World were primarily motivated by the pursuit of economic gain, driven by dreams of discovering mythical cities like El Dorado, rich in gold. Their ambitions were to amass fortunes and return to Spain to live as hidalgos—persons of wealth and influence. However, the reality they encountered necessitated alternative methods for securing profit, leading to the establishment of the encomienda system.
The Encomienda System: A Feudal Legacy
The encomienda system was a form of labor organization that allowed Spanish colonists, or encomenderos, to collect tribute from the indigenous peoples, referred to as Indios, in exchange for protection and the promise of Christianization. Although theoretically mutualistic, in practice, it facilitated the severe exploitation and decline of indigenous populations due to overwork and the introduction of European diseases.
Advocacy and Reform: The Role of Bartolome de las Casas
Bartolome de las Casas, a Dominican friar, emerged as a vocal critic of the encomienda system. His work, "A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies," highlighted the atrocities committed against indigenous peoples and contributed to the formation of the "Black Legend," which depicted the Spanish as brutal exploiters. Las Casas' activism was instrumental in prompting legal and humanitarian reforms aimed at protecting indigenous communities.
Transition to Viceroyalties and Legal Reforms
The Spanish Empire gradually shifted from the rule of conquistadors to a more formal governance structure overseen by viceroys. This transition, marked by the establishment of the Viceroyalties of New Spain and Peru, aimed to exert more direct Crown control and introduce a systematic approach to colonial administration. In response to the abuses highlighted by advocates like Las Casas, King Charles V issued The New Laws of the Indies in 1542, attempting to address and mitigate the exploitation of indigenous peoples.
The Valladolid Debate and Human Rights
The Valladolid Debate of 1550, featuring Bartolome de las Casas and Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda, represented a seminal discussion on the rights and treatment of indigenous peoples within the context of European colonialism. The debate underscored contrasting views on the humanity and rights of the Indios, ultimately influencing the Spanish king to enact reforms aimed at curtailing the encomienda system, albeit with limited and inconsistent success.
Legacy and Impact
The encomienda system and the subsequent reforms underscore the complexities of colonial rule and its lasting impact on the development of societies in the Americas. The narrative also highlights the crucial role of leadership and policy in shaping the trajectory of colonial empires. The mention of King Charles the Second, known as "el hechizado," serves as a reminder of the profound influence of monarchs on the empire's fortunes.
As we transition our focus to North America in subsequent discussions, the enduring legacy of the Spanish empire's colonization practices, particularly the encomienda system, remains a critical area of study for understanding the historical dynamics that have shaped modern Latin American nations.